Leaders and Leadership
One type of person who has power over others, in the sense that the person is able to influence them, is leaders. Leaders are in a position in which they can exert leadership, which is the ability to direct or inspire others to achieve goals (Chemers, 2001; Hogg, 2010). Leaders have many different influence techniques at their disposal: In some cases they may give commands and enforce them with reward or coercive power, resulting in public compliance with the commands. In other cases they may rely on well-reasoned technical arguments or inspirational appeals, making use of legitimate, referent, or expert power, with the goal of creating private acceptance and leading their followers to achieve. Leadership is a classic example of the combined effects of the person and the social situation.
Let’s consider first the person part of the equation and then turn to consider how the person and the social situation work together to create effective leadership.
Personality and Leadership
Figure 6.12 The Google corporation cofounders Larry Page and Sergey Brin are good examples of transformational leaders who have been able to see new visions and to motivate their workers to achieve them.
One approach to understanding leadership is to focus on person variables. Personality theories of leadership [Production: Please bold font in OER] are explanations of leadership based on the idea that some people are simply “natural leaders” because they possess personality characteristics that make them effective (Zaccaro, 2007). One personality variable that is associated with effective leadership is intelligence. Being intelligent improves leadership, as long as the leader is able to communicate in a way that is easily understood by his or her followers (Simonton, 1994, 1995). Other research has found that a leader’s social skills, such as the ability to accurately perceive the needs and goals of the group members, are also important to effective leadership. People who are more sociable, and therefore better able to communicate with others, tend to make good leaders (Kenny & Zaccaro, 1983; Sorrentino & Boutillier, 1975).
Other variables that relate to leadership effectiveness include verbal skills, creativity, self-confidence, emotional stability, conscientiousness, and agreeableness (Cronshaw & Lord, 1987; Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002; Yukl, 2002). And of course the individual’s skills at the task at hand are important. Leaders who have expertise in the area of their leadership will be more effective than those who do not. Because so many characteristics seem to be related to leadership skills, some researchers have attempted to account for leadership not in terms of individual traits but in terms of a package of traits that successful leaders seem to have. Some have considered this in terms of charisma (Beyer, 1999; Conger & Kanungo, 1998). Charismatic leaders [Production: Please bold font in OER] are leaders who are enthusiastic, committed, and self-confident; who tend to talk about the importance of group goals at a broad level; and who make personal sacrifices for the group. Charismatic leaders express views that support and validate existing group norms but that also contain a vision of what the group could or should be. Charismatic leaders use their referent power to motivate, uplift, and inspire others. And research has found a positive relationship between a leader’s charisma and effective leadership performance (Simonton, 1988).
Another trait-based approach to leadership is based on the idea that leaders take either transactional or transformational leadership styles with their subordinates (Avolio & Yammarino, 2003; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, & Fetter, 1990). Transactional leaders [Production: Please bold font in OER] are the more regular leaders who work with their subordinates to help them understand what is required of them and to get the job done. Transformational leaders,[Production: Please bold font in OER] on the other hand, are more like charismatic leaders—they have a vision of where the group is going and attempt to stimulate and inspire their workers to move beyond their present status and to create a new and better future. Transformational leaders are those who can reconfigure or transform the group’s norms (Reicher & Hopkins, 2003).
Leadership as an Interaction between the Person and the Situation
Even though there appears to be at least some personality traits that relate to leadership ability, the most important approaches to understanding leadership take into consideration both the personality characteristics of the leader and the situation in which the leader is operating. In some cases, the situation itself is important. For instance, although Winston Churchill is now regarded as having been one of the world’s greatest political leaders ever, he was not a particularly popular figure in Great Britain prior to World War II. However, against the backdrop of the threat posed by Nazi Germany, his defiant and stubborn nature provided just the inspiration many sought. This is a classic example of how a situation can influence the perceptions of a leader’s skill. In other cases, however, both the situation and the person are critical.
One well-known person-situation approach to understanding leadership effectiveness was developed by Fred Fiedler and his colleagues (Ayman, Chemers, & Fiedler, 1995). The contingency model of leadership effectiveness [Production: Please bold font in OER] is a model of leadership effectiveness that focuses on both person variables and situational variables. Fielder conceptualized the leadership style of the individual as a relatively stable personality variable and measured it by having people consider all the people they had ever worked with and describe the person that they least liked to work with (their least preferred coworker). Those who indicated that they only somewhat disliked their least preferred coworker were classified as relationship-oriented types of people, who were motivated to have close personal relationships with others. However, those who indicated that they did not like this coworker very much were classified as task-oriented types, who were motivated primarily by getting the job done.
In addition to classifying individuals according to their leadership styles, Fiedler also classified the situations in which groups had to perform their tasks, both on the basis of the task itself and on the basis of the leader’s relationship to the group members. Specifically, as shown in Figure 6.13, “The Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness,” Fiedler thought that three aspects of the group situation were important:
The degree to which the leader already has a good relationship with the group and the support of the group members (leader-member relations)
The extent to which the task is structured and unambiguous (task structure)
The leader’s level of power or support in the organization (position power)
Furthermore, Fielder believed that these factors were ordered in terms of their importance, with leader-member relationships being more important than task structure, which was in turn more important than position power. As a result, he was able to create eight levels of the “situational favorableness” of the group situation, which roughly range from most favorable to least favorable for the leader. The most favorable relationship involves good relationships, a structured task, and strong power for the leader, whereas the least favorable relationship involves poor relationships, an unstructured task, and weak leader power.
Figure 6.13 The Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness [Image description]
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This video outlines Fiedler’s model with an explanation of the eight levels, along with recommendations of which leadership style is best at each level.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aWmVBc8r64k
Fielder’s Contingency Theory [duration 3:49]
(ThingsYouNeedToKnowAbout, 2019)
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The contingency model is interactionist because it proposes that individuals with different leadership styles will differ in effectiveness in different group situations. Task-oriented leaders are expected to be most effective in situations in which the group situation is very favorable because this gives the leader the ability to move the group forward, or in situations in which the group situation is very unfavorable and in which the extreme problems of the situation require the leader to engage in decisive action. However, in the situations of moderate favorableness, which occur when there is a lack of support for the leader or when the problem to be solved is very difficult or unclear, the more relationship-oriented leader is expected to be more effective. In short, the contingency model predicts that task-oriented leaders will be most effective either when the group climate is very favorable and thus there is no need to be concerned about the group members’ feelings, or when the group climate is very unfavorable and the task-oriented leader needs to take firm control.
Still another approach to understanding leadership is based on the extent to which a group member embodies the norms of the group. The idea is that people who accept group norms and behave in accordance with them are likely to be seen as particularly good group members and therefore likely to become leaders (Hogg, 2001; Hogg & Van Knippenberg, 2003). Group members who follow group norms are seen as more trustworthy (Dirks & Ferrin, 2002) and are likely to engage in group-oriented behaviors to strengthen their leadership credentials (Platow & van Knippenberg, 2001).
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Activity 7: Follow the Leader Reflection
Introduction
In this activity, you will be applying what you just learned about the contingency model of leadership to reflect on your own experiences being led in the past. Refer to Figure 6.13 The Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness as you work through this activity.
Instructions
Select a particularly memorable leader from your past. This could be a teacher, a camp counsellor, a coach, a mentor, a manager, etc. The leader you choose could be memorable as one of the best you had or one of the worst, whichever you prefer.
Reflect on a situation you were in with this leader and assess their leadership using the contingency model of leadership (Ayman , Chemers, & Fiedler, 1995). Remember, further left in the model is more favourable and further right is less favourable. To help you apply the model effectively, ask yourself these questions:
How was your relationship with the leader? (Good vs. Bad)
Was the task clear or ambiguous? (Structured vs. Unstructured)
Was the leader supported by the broader organization? (Strong vs. Weak)
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Key Takeaways
Social power can be defined as the ability of a person to create conformity, even when the people being influenced may attempt to resist those changes.
Milgram’s studies on obedience demonstrated the remarkable extent to which the social situation and people with authority have the power to create obedience.
One of the most influential theories of power was developed by French and Raven, who identified five different types of power—reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, referent power, and expert power. The types vary in terms of whether their use is more likely to create public compliance or private acceptance.
Although power can be abused by those who have it, having power also creates some positive outcomes for individuals.
Leadership is determined by person variables, situational variables, and by the person-situation interaction. The contingency model of leadership effectiveness is an example of the last factor.
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Exercises and Critical Thinking
Write a paragraph that expresses your opinions about the Holocaust or about another example of obedience to authority. Consider how social psychological research on obedience informs your interpretation of the event.
Imagine being a participant in Milgram’s experiment on obedience to authority. Describe how you think you would react to the situation as it unfolds.
Provide an example of someone who has each of the types of power discussed in this section.
Consider a leader whom you have worked with in the past. What types of leadership did that person use? Were they effective?
Choose a recent event that involved a very effective leader or one that involved a very poor one. Analyze the leadership in terms of the topics discussed in this chapter.
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Image Descriptions
Figure 6.13 The Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness
A graph demonstrating the relative effectiveness of relationship-oriented leader versus task-oriented leader, followed by a table illustrating 8 levels of situational favorableness. From the most favorable situational control to the most unfavorable situational control:
Good leader-member relations, structured task, strong leader’s position of power
Good leader-member relations, structured task, weak leader’s position of power
Good leader-member relations, unstructured task, strong leader’s position of power
Good leader-member relations, unstructured task, strong leader’s position of power
Bad leader-member relations, structured task, strong leader’s position of power
Bad leader-member relations, structured task, weak leader’s position of power
Bad leader-member relations, unstructured task, strong leader’s position of power
Bad leader-member relations, unstructured task, weak leader’s position of power
Media Attributions
“Milgram Experiment v2” by Expiring frog is licensed under a CC BY-SA 3.0 licence.
“AbuGhraibAbuse-standing-on-box” by U.S. Government copyright is in the Public domain.
“Schmidt-Brin-Page-20080520” by Joi Ito is licensed under a CC BY 2.0 licence.
ThingsYouNeedToKnowAbout. (2019) Fielder’s Contingency Theory [Video]. YouTube. [Production: please add this reference to the media list]
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